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History of Jerusalem (42)
Posted on: 1999
By Khaled Nusseibeh
Islam and Muslim civilization have been criticized by many detractors. The anti-Islamic polemic has addressed many themes. One such theme is the question of the dealing of Islamic societies with protected people (Dhimmis), or the “People of the Book”: Christians and Jews.
In all fairness, some of these critics, or students of Muslim civilization have often mentioned the tolerance of the Muslim religion towards Ahl Al-Kitab– or People of the Book: the people of the Torah and the Evangel. In fact, in comparison with other civilizations Muslim civilization embodies tolerance of an unequalled extent.
The issue of the view of Islam of Christianity and Judaism, or of Jews and Christians is too broad to be dealt with in a short article. Relevant to say here is that Dhimmis’ freedom of religious practice, rights to property, to life, to honor were generally defended by the Islamic caliphate and by Islamic governments. In fact, the law of Islam defends those rights.
Even under circumstances of a military conquest of territory by Muslims the rights of the non-Muslims were generally safeguarded: In the sense that freedom of religious belief was not infringed (although people were encouraged to become Muslim, and hence, an integral part of the Muslim nation), women and children were not murdered, private property was generally safeguarded.
When we speak about Israeli occupation of Arab territory and honest comparison between historical Muslim treatment of Jews and Israeli treatment of Arabs is perhaps never evoked. Quite objectively, the record of the Israeli governments over fifty years has been dismal: land is routinely expropriated, economic warfare has oftentimes been perpetrated with viciousness, hundreds and hundreds of thousands of Palestinians who remained in Palestine have been arrested over the years– sometimes tortured and killed– not to mention the denial of the right to return for perhaps more than half of the Palestinian people– multitudes of whom continue to live in camps of refuge in Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and Egypt.
This writer recently attended a lecture delivered by a Jordanian official describing his impressions of east Jerusalem at the premises of the Jerusalem Forum in Amman: in a nutshell, the situation for the Arab quarter of the city is dismal. Compared with the western part of the city the municipal services are vastly inferior, the economic circumstances are recessionary, there is an absence of intellectual and political leadership, and Arab property is shrinking.
In effect, the Arab quarter of Jerusalem that is so talked about in the press and by politicians has been ghettoized. Even Islam’s holy Aqsa Mosque is being continually threatened by elements that wish to inflict damage to it– through the construction of underground tunnels or through periodic attacks on its premises by extremist elements.
On a final note: it is best for those that criticize Islam on the issue of “protected people” and who are at the same time supporters of and apologists for Israeli occupation to refrain.
Intellectual and moral honesty may be better served in the process.
Say, “O you people of the book, come to a just word between you and us, that we worship none but God, and that we associate naught with him, and that we take not one another for Lords apart from God.“ But if they turn away, then say, “Be it witnessed that we are Muslims.” (Holy Qur’an, 3:64)
Mr. Khaled Nusseibeh is a translator and writer. He currently manages the Ubada Center for Writing and Translation Services in Amman. Born in Amman in 1961, he obtained his BA and MA from Columbia and Princeton Universities, respectively. Mr. Nusseibeh, who originates from Jerusalem, specialized in Near Eastern Studies with a focus on Islamic thought and studies.
Posted on: 1999
By Khaled Nusseibeh
The Muslim historian Al-Mas’udi wrote: The wise have said: a sign of the fidelity of a human being and his adherence to pledges is his yearning for his brethren as well as his yearning for his homelands. 
And one of the signs of maturity is a person’s longing for the place of birth… And another person said: God developed the countries of the earth through (human) love for the homelands, and so, a sign of benevolence… is love for the place of birth.
People through an innate instinct have a sense of belonging to a homeland. This belonging is nurtured through experiencing life on the soil of a city or a village or a homeland. Building life through toil, supporting a family and shouldering a responsibility in honoring a homeland cements a sense of belonging. Faith in God and righteousness make belonging to a homeland a more noble sentiment, a truer feeling; corruption, conversely, alongside other factors, may diminish a human being’s sense of belonging.
Many, many Palestinians– and indeed many human beings– have experienced uprootment and displacement from a homeland. For many human beings that chose settling in another homeland the choice was voluntary. For many Palestinians Zionist seizures of their land, their farms and cities, their orchards and ancestral dwellings faced them with forced deprivation of their ancestral land.
The present writer is an example of multitudes of Palestinians who know of their entitlement to Palestine, or to the city of Jerusalem– but who also recognize that their uprootment was an affliction that sometimes visits people on their journey in life. In effect, visiting one’s homeland is presently possible as a tourist: similar, for example, to a citizen of Japan acquiring the right to visit Russia after getting a visa from the embassy of Russia in Tokyo.
But disinheritance does not mean the cancellation of a right or a group of rights; nor does dispossession have the effect of legitimizing usurpation; nor does force have the impact of redefining a structure of rights and obligations related to rights to dwelling, property, secure life, freedom from oppression, entitlement to worship in Allah’s sacred sanctuary– i.e. the Aqsa Mosque of Jerusalem.
It is arguable that in each instance of human dispute over protected or violated human life, honor, property– it is morally and rationally possible to distinguish between justice and injustice, between righteous conduct and oppression, between lawlessness and respect for people’s rights and obligations. It is also arguable that by virtue of preponderance or inferior power the stronger have been able to dictate the resolution of a dispute: but the dictation of the stronger or the protests of the weaker do not necessarily constitute what is just. Civilized conduct attempts to defend what is right in addition to affirming power and force.
The beginning of the article speaks of integrity as related to love and yearning for homeland: Palestinians who derive their sense of belonging from faith in God almighty will build their homeland even in dispersal and will struggle to return– and will also honor, build and defend their homeland of migration.
Mr. Khaled Nusseibeh is a translator and writer. He currently manages the Ubada Center for Writing and Translation Services in Amman. Born in Amman in 1961, he obtained his BA and MA from Columbia and Princeton Universities, respectively. Mr. Nusseibeh, who originates from Jerusalem, specialized in Near Eastern Studies with a focus on Islamic thought and studies.
Posted on: 1999
By Khaled Nusseibeh
When history meshes with multi ethnic venture Jerusalem’s legacy tells an amazing story; and when compassion rests in a crucible of philanthropy with enduring benefit the story of Suleiman The Magnificent’s Russian spouse’s endowment is evoked.
It is a well known fact that the Ottoman Caliphate governed wide expanses of territory spanning Turkey, Syria, Egypt, Parts of Eastern Europe, the Arabian Peninsula as well as parts of North Africa. The magnificent world and venture of the Ottomans endured for about seven centuries. From the sixteenth century until the First World War the city of Jerusalem was within the political patrimony of the Ottoman Islamic Caliphate.
Suleiman The Magnificent’s Russian wife, “Roxilana” made a charitable endowment in the year 1551 which would feed the needy and the seekers of knowledge in Jerusalem for several centuries. The mentioned endowment’s name is “Takiyat Khaski Sultan”. Various properties in various parts of Palestine became a Waqf (Inalienable Endowment) in order to provide continual financing for the Takiyat Khaski Sultan.
In practical terms, the income from these endowments would be used to maintain the “Takiyat Khaski Sultan”. But what did this “Takiya” actually entail? Or, rather, how can we go about describing it?
This Takiya has two ovens, a place for ritual ablution (mutawada’) made of stone, a kitchen, over and above a room housing a tomb. The tomb is said to be that of a Sheikh Sa’d Eddin Rasafi.
The father of the present writer related that the Takiyat Khaski Sultan continued to distribute food to the poor in Jerusalem up until the 20th century. He further relates that some of the food distributed was a form of cooked wheat.
But why would the Russian wife of Suleiman The Magnificent (or Suleiman al-Qanuni as the Ottoman Caliph is known to Arabs and Muslims) make such an endowment? Probably out of a piously motivated action of charity. Moreover, many persons of wealth and influence are keen on communicating an image of benevolence and social compassion. That Roxilana’s charitable action was in Jerusalem is indicative of her piety as well as the stature of Jerusalem in the hearts of the elite of the Ottoman Caliphate.
Al-sadaqa al-jariya is one of three things that benefit a Muslim after he parts with life. This is what the Prophet Muhammad taught. What is al-sadaqa al-jariya? It is an act of charity whose benefits continue after a person passes away. Many, many Muslims have made vast amounts of charitable contributions over 14 centuries out of a belief in the divine reward of al-Sadaqa al-jariya: e.g. water fountains for pedestrians, contributing to educational projects and places of heath care…etc.
In an age when ethnic warfare and racial discrimination continues to menace the stability of world civilization the story of Roxilana’s endowment is a memory of hope and endearment.
References:
Nijm, Raif. 1st ed. 1983. Kunuz Al-Quds. A Publication of Al-Al-bait Foundation.
Mr. Khaled Nusseibeh is a translator and writer. He currently manages the Ubada Center for Writing and Translation Services in Amman. Born in Amman in 1961, he obtained his BA and MA from Columbia and Princeton Universities, respectively. Mr. Nusseibeh, who originates from Jerusalem, specialized in Near Eastern Studies with a focus on Islamic thought and studies.
Posted on: 1999
By Khaled Nusseibeh
Eternity may be understood through many avenues and at many levels. The primary avenue of understanding it is the permanence of life after death and resurrection; by extension, the ephemeral, temporary moment of life is an obvious fact.
The temporary nature of life is oftentimes difficult to accept. The unwise have challenged life’s fading moment through celebrating only this life, and through suppressing its underlying meaning and reality.
Many in life’s history have appreciated life with its joyous occasions– success, birth, health, material well-being, and betrothal. Those have lived their earthly moment– but have also struggled to remind themselves of life’s fading moment, in addition to their yearning for the abode of paradise and for liberation from hellfire.
According to Islam, the road to salvation has, since the dawn of human habitation on earth, been doctrinally and ethically identical: surrender to the One God our Creator, to his messengers, belief in the hereafter, and performance of righteous deeds and avoidance of corruption.
The Unity of God– and his exclusive entitlement to be worshipped– has been a belief communicated through God’s Covenant with our collective ancestor Adam, and his descendants, and through divine revelations to the peoples and tribes of mankind: e.g. the Torah, the Evangel and the Holy Koran, revealed to Moses, Jesus and the Prophet Muhammad respectively. (Peace be upon them).
It is no secret that many, in human history, until present times, have not been believers. There are common threads in the phenomenon of unbelief too many to enumerate here: but one of them is a denial of the significance of life’s temporary moment, coupled with an irrational denial of God’s Capability to resurrect the dead on the Day of Judgement. That the denial of the possibility of resurrection is an irrationality is because it limits– through an intellectual fiction– God’s Attribute of Omnipotence (i.e. that God is Almighty and that he is Capable of all things). It is an irrationality, moreover, because all of us can witness the miracle of life in the birth of each baby, in the growth of each tree…; and yet, through observing the seemingly ordinary birth of life many exclude the possibility that the God who created life in the first place is capable of creating the same life again. To deny this is to express a limited observation of life as occurring once. But to say that life occurs once is simply false: the proofs of Revelation and reason support this.
The argument may be made, furthermore, that one of the primary sources of human folly and oppression is denial of resurrection and Divine accounting, over and above clinging to the illusion of permanence in this life; sometimes, this has been the folly of individuals– at others, it has been the folly of elites of empires, ruling dynasties, fiefdoms– and, also, the folly of very modern secular states (e.g. Communist, Nazi or liberal states). Hitler believed that Berlin would be the Third Reich’s capital for 1,000 years; Communists were convinced that Socialism is where the direction of history is; the liberal intellectual Fukuyama claimed that liberalism is the final ideological and political event of human history.
Jerusalem very much embodies the notion of the heavenly kingdom and life after death; and yet, it has been characterized by some Zionist politicians as “Israel’s” eternal capital. It is, sometimes more appropriate to withhold comment when claims to political eternity are made! History’s simplest lessons would have to be ignored in the process.
Human vision is maintained– and the moral content of political conduct is enhanced– when people have the ability to affirm life’s and power’s temporary moment. To affirm God’s unchanging reality and to believe in the hereafter is critically important in the human quest to avoid what is painful or disastrous. To learn, to build, to struggle, to toil are facts of life: to do so with faith, with a commitment to justice, and with an awareness of God’s purpose in life is to avoid rolling the dice of uncertainty and self inflicted injury. Truly Allah is All-Merciful and absolutely just.
Mr. Khaled Nusseibeh is a translator and writer. He currently manages the Ubada Center for Writing and Translation Services in Amman. Born in Amman in 1961, he obtained his BA and MA from Columbia and Princeton Universities, respectively. Mr. Nusseibeh, who originates from Jerusalem, specialized in Near Eastern Studies with a focus on Islamic thought and studies.
Posted on: 1999
By Khaled Nusseibeh
There are moments in the annals of human history when nations face, sometimes willfully– at others under compulsion– the bitter burdens of conflict. Each nation, in the ebb and flow of historical movement, has had a taste of both triumph as well as defeat. 
At each moment of such conflict individuals and states have grappled with the imperatives of an ethic of conduct, or have at other times been, to grave consequence, oblivious to the importance of a moral premise for behavior in times of war.
The modern world has, in this closing century of the second millenium, been profoundly shaken by the brutalities of modern warfare, the extent of which brutality and suffering has been unmatched in the preceding millennia of human civilization. The two world wars, the camps of incarceration of the Stalinist Soviet Union, Nazi Germany– and the multiple conflicts of this century have visited on both innocent and culpable life a heavy toll of suffering and death; likewise, the unfolding conflicts in Palestine, Iraq, Lebanon, and the Balkans have entailed a saga of oppression, the unethical targeting of innocents, the expropriation of legitimately acquired wealth and substantial abuses of human rights.
When children are targets of war, when the honor of women and men is a weapon in the arsenal of foes of dimmed moral vision, when the rights of civilian populations under military occupation are violated men and women of sense must pose the question: is there a code that can prevent human descent into the code of the jungle under conditions of conflict? Or have those participating in current conflicts forgotten the lessons of previous wars, or can’t they be awakened to a code of conduct, adherence to which, may be disaster preventive for future generations?
To speak in simple terms: there are ground rules for peaceful co-existence between states which may be enhanced when basic and politically tolerable restraint is shown by politicians and military personnel of all ranks in times of conflict. In other words, ethnic cleansing, attempting to starve a portion of a civilian population as a weapon of battle, rape of women, destruction of vital food crops, violence against children, plunder of the private property of a population under occupation, and degrading treatment of prisoners of war, all contribute to writing the following chapter of human conflict and suffering.
Islam has an ethic of conflict which is both humane, reasonable, and merciful to protagonists in a conflict: Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq, the first Caliph of Islam, captured an important part of this ethic in these words which he addressed to his troops in A.D. seventh century:
“O people, be alerted to ten matters, so learn them from me; do not betray.., do not cheat, do not defile dead corpses, do not kill a small child, or an aged man, nor a woman, do not cut or burn trees of palm, do not cut a fruit bearing tree, do not slaughter a sheep or a cow or a camel except for your nourishment; and you will encounter people who are dwellers of cloisters (i.e. monks and priests) so do not harm them…” (Quoted from: Mawsu’t Al-‘Alam Al-Islami/’Umar Al-Armuti, pp.205)
All of the preceding, in my view is relevant to the issue of Jerusalem which the One God of humanity has sanctified and blessed as the land of peace, holiness, and human surrender to Heaven. Such blessing is anchored in human striving to accept the races of earth, to build monuments of equity and tolerance, to defend what is inviolable in God’s Law, to water the plant of human glorification of God Almighty through deeds which do justice to an orphan, which support a righteous struggle to prevent the bulldozing of a home, which spread knowledge that is useful to people in their livelihoods– but which also helps people in their struggles for salvation in the hereafter.
It is very often a paradox that perpetrators of injustice and its victims are sometimes driven, through the blinding influence of power, or the sense of grievance at victimization– to unethical methods and views of struggle. In a word, any struggle that is injurious to Religion, property, inviolable life, the dignity of people, the integrity of the family is reprehensible– under circumstances of both military preponderance or under conditions of occupation; Muslims and people of goodwill will continue mourning the occupation of the Holy City of Jerusalem and will hopefully, continue to reform themselves and to strive that it is restored to righteous and tolerant sovereignty.
Mr. Khaled Nusseibeh is a translator and writer. He currently manages the Ubada Center for Writing and Translation Services in Amman. Born in Amman in 1961, he obtained his BA and MA from Columbia and Princeton Universities, respectively. Mr. Nusseibeh, who originates from Jerusalem, specialized in Near Eastern Studies with a focus on Islamic thought and studies.
Posted on: 1999
By Khaled Nusseibeh
To state that life is oftentimes wrapped in painful paradoxes would not be saying something new or extraordinary. The elegant and graceful handwriting and prose of Iss’af Nashashibi– about whom this article speaks– stand in paradoxical contrast to the turbulent and sometimes difficult circumstances to which the people of Jerusalem and Palestine, and to which Iss’af Nashashibi himself was subject.
If his handwritten and remarkably seasoned prose show elegant, adept self-expression to extend the metaphor, the people of Palestine showed great resilience in the face of the challenge to survive the threats of dispossession, dismemberment, Diaspora and the unrelenting distortion of a legacy by Zionist forces and ideology.
If we accept that Nashashibi’s year of birth was 1882 (and this writer has seen contradictory accounts about his year of birth) then we would be speaking about the year in which the forces of the British government occupied Egypt during the reign of Khedive Isma’il. The year of his death is, by contrast, without doubt 1948.
Both 1882 and 1948 were years of great consequence for Egypt, Britain, Palestine, and the Arab World. In a sense, 1882 fortified the presence of British imperialism in the Middle East through the political and economic subjection of Egypt.
And, 1948 was the year of Arab political and military defeat and the establishment of the Zionist entity on the soil of Palestine– as it was, likewise, the year of Palestinian exodus and colossal loss of territorial and human rights.
Unfortunately, British influence in Egypt and mandated tutelage over Palestine both catalyzed and oversaw the fruition of the Zionist project of establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
Equally, the Zionist project was a harbinger of great suffering and instability for the Arab region– let alone the world at large– as well as a sordid saga of oppression, abuse of power, a systematic violation of the rightful entitlement of the Palestinian people to live in security on their ancestral soil, on their orchards, and in their villages and cities.
Ironically, Zionism was and is still viewed by some who are politically and culturally influential in the West as a strategic asset when in fact it has and continues to undermine trust and goodwill in relations between the East and West.
Iss’af Nashashibi, scholar, teacher, man of letters, publicist and poet is the son of Uthman ibn Salman Nashashibi who was a Jerusalemite noted for his learning and private wealth– in addition to being a member of a leading Jerusalem Muslim, Arab family.
Iss’af’s early years had to do with a socially and religiously conservative upbringing within the framework of the Ottoman system of Sunni Caliphal rule of which Palestine– and especially Jerusalem– were a vital part. The great ancestor of the Nashashibis was Amir Nasser Eddin who was appointed by the Mameluke King Jukmuk to a leading position in the administration of Palestine and its places of worship. After his tenure expired he decided to move from Egypt and settle in Jerusalem from which time onwards the family enjoyed continuous habitation in the Holy City.
It is interesting to note that the name Nashashibi derives from “Nashab” which means arrow or spear: essentially, Nashashibi may mean those who produce arrows. Far from being a producer of arrows Iss’af hurled many a lance at tendencies in modern Arab culture which sought to supersede traditional matrices of thinking, of belles lettres, of styles of classical Arabic expression of which he was a staunch defender; in a cultural sense he was deeply conservative.
That by no means implies an oblivion on his part to trends in modern civilization, whose selective adoption he may have advocated as a means to overcome tendencies of backwardness and decline evident in the material and cultural performance of the Arab nation: the progressing march of Zionist colonialism and, Arab and Islamic disunity were perhaps important stimulators of a realization that progress was critically important in the task to overcome these enormous challenges.
Having acquired a conventional “Kuttab” (small classroom gathering) education in his early years in Jerusalem in the sciences of religion, language, and mathematics, he traveled to the great city of Beirut and studied in a Missionary school where he acquired some knowledge of French and Western Culture, in addition to continuing his study of the Arabic language and literature under the supervision of Abdullah Bustani, Muhyi addin Khayyat and Mustapha Ghalayani. By the end of World War I he taught Arabic at Al-Salahiya and Al-Rashidiya schools.
Nashashibi wrote prolifically on such subjects as politics, language, grammar, and poetry, though he was more skilled as an essayist than as a poet. In 1935 he published a work about Islam titled “Al Islam Al Sahih” or “The Correct Islam” in which he attempted to give an interpretation of the Muslim creed in its pure form.
Nashashibi wrote this book after much research and during a decade when some of the finest literary figures (for example, Muhammad Heikal, Abbas Al-Aqqad, Taha Hussein) were showing increased focus on Islamic themes in their writings.
The year of his death (1948) in Cairo was also a year of grief for the Arab and Muslim worlds because it ushered in a time of political turbulence, Palestinian dispersal and considerable dispossession for the people of Palestine. His funeral, which the exiled Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin Al-Husseini, attended, evoked the condolences of leading figures in Egyptian society including the Muslim luminary Imam Hassan Al-Banna, King Farouk, Nuqrashi Pasha– in addition to many in the arena of culture who paid tribute to a remarkable man who lived and struggled defending the integrity of Arab culture and the survival of Palestine as a land with a people, a history and a future.
It may be of symbolic significance that Nashashibi passed away in the land inhabited by his ancestors because of circumstances beyond his control: his ancestors, several centuries ago, were inhabitants of Egypt.
Equally symbolic, perhaps, is that funeral prayers were held at the “Sharkass” Mosque (or Circassian Mosque): the Circassians were the dominant group in the Mameluke State which appointed Nasser eddin Nashashibi– the family’s ancestor, perhaps five centuries earlier, as Nathir Al-Haramayn in Palestine, or the Inspector at the two holy places.
Mr. Khaled Nusseibeh is a translator and writer. He currently manages the Ubada Center for Writing and Translation Services in Amman. Born in Amman in 1961, he obtained his BA and MA from Columbia and Princeton Universities, respectively. Mr. Nusseibeh, who originates from Jerusalem, specialized in Near Eastern Studies with a focus on Islamic thought and studies.
Posted on: 1999
By Khalid Nusseibeh
Sometimes, ideas may be likened to a tent in a desert that houses the beliefs of a group, but at times, encounters a storm that partially changes the structure of the tent, perhaps some of the pillars on which it stands.
Tragically, the changed structure of the tent (which, in this context, corresponds to a group’s sense of the sacred, of what is true) becomes a harbinger of conflict among religious denominations, among tribes, even among civilizations… Likewise, oftentimes it creates a movement in a culture’s direction, which may have negative consequences for a society for many an era.
To extend the metaphor further, the truth that the ancestral patriarch of monotheists– Abraham– communicated was, in essence, human surrender to the One God, coupled with an adherence to His Revealed Doctrine and Law. In effect this basic doctrine or truth was disseminated and taught by Isaac, Jacob and Ishmael and many other Prophets, the seal of whom, according to Muslims, is the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)– to whom was revealed the Holy Qur’an.
It is not a coincidence that the ummah (community) of God’s Final Revelation, to which any human being of any tribe, race or geographic location may belong– through witnessing that there is Only One God and Muhammad is His Messenger– became custodian of Mecca’s Sacred Sanctuary (built by Abraham and Ishmael), and of Jerusalem. To Muslims, the Arabization and Islamization of Jerusalem and Palestine represented the worldly vindication of monotheistic faith manifested in the governance of Islam’s tolerant and just system of Law and values.
The realization of these ideals in actual human reality (i.e. the Arab-Muslim history of Jerusalem)– in a multi-ethnic, multi-denominational urban setting– was a task that Arab and non-Arab Muslims undertook to perform with varying degrees of piety, political success, moral probity and judiciousness.
The opening of Mecca by the Prophet Muhammed and the faithful in AD 7th century (1st Hijri) and the purification of its Sacred Sanctuary was a crescendo in the human striving to demolish idolatry and to cleanse the House of Allah from its evil. Equally, the Arab Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in roughly the same period was a milestone in terms of ushering in the age of the political sovereignty of the Unitarian, Universal Caliphate of Islam.
The pact signed between the Patriarch Sophronious and ‘Umar Ibn Al-Khattab (the second Rightly Guided Caliph) on the hour of the Arab-Islamic opening of Jerusalem in AD 637 was an enduring framework for dignified coexistence between Christians and Muslims in the shadow of God’s Final Revealed Code. The liberation of Jerusalem symbolized, moreover, the vindication of early Christian and Jewish teachings insofar as Islam is the consummation and perfect elaboration of earlier monotheistic Revealed Religions.
Paradoxically, therefore, Islam was Heaven’s vindication of the Torah revealed to Moses (peace upon him), as it was a vindication of the original teachings and doctrines of Christianity (which prophesied the mission of Muhammad)– and yet, it was viewed by many churches, by many Jewish theologians as a heresy. Inevitably, this fostered much conflict through the prolonged wars of the crusades, and in the present day, through the Zionist occupation of Jerusalem.
Jerusalem is the Holy City of Peace or Salaam. Salaam is one of the Attributes of the One God who gives people the blessing of peace when the pillars of His Covenant with mankind are revered and observed: faith in the One God, His angels, His Revealed Books, His Messengers, the Hereafter and Divine Predestination—and observance of and obedience to His Merciful and Just Law.
The earth is in need of making peace with Heaven: to achieve that, its inhabitants must honor the pact with God which includes spreading justice, mercy and love on earth, and resisting oppression, corruption and bigotry. Then, the reasonable foundations of peace may be built.
(Indeed We have sent Our Messengers with the ostensive proofs, and We sent down with them the Book and the Balance, that man may uphold equity. And We have sent down iron, wherein is mighty power and many uses for mankind; that God may know who helps Him and His Messengers in the unseen). (Holy Qur’an, Sura 57, Ayah 25)
Mr. Khaled Nusseibeh is a translator and writer. He currently manages the Ubada Center for Writing and Translation Services in Amman. Born in Amman in 1961, he obtained his BA and MA from Columbia and Princeton Universities, respectively. Mr. Nusseibeh, who originates from Jerusalem, specialized in Near Eastern Studies with a focus on Islamic thought and studies.
Posted on: 1999
By Khaled Nusseibeh
When the expanses of existence, the glory of Divine Creation, and the twining of places of sanctity manifest themselves in the miraculous, a Muslim may think of the event of Al-Isra’a W’al Mi’raj.
This event was the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) trek by night from Mecca to Jerusalem, and from Jerusalem towards the outermost regions of the skies.
Al-Isra’a W’al Mi’raj was recorded in the Holy Qur’an in this verse: (Glorified is He who took His servant by night from the Sacrosanct Mosque to the Furthermost Mosque, the precincts of which We have blessed, that We might show him (some) of our signs. Truly He is the Hearer, the Seer) Holy Qur’an, 17:1, Tr. Dr. M. M. Khatib.
Inasmuch as this event represented a form of travel that defies the parameters of humanly knowable speed– or the physics of time and space– (considering that the trek was made to Jerusalem, and to the heavens in what is subject to experience), it also embodied a lasting bond between the Sacred Mosque of Mecca and the Aqsa Mosque of Jerusalem for the nation of the Arabs and Muslims. In fact, Al-Aqsa Mosque was the first Kibla (the direction of prayer) of the nation of Islam before the Ka’aba became the focal point of worship.
From the vantage point of Islam (which is a word that carries the meaning of human surrender to God, inasmuch as it carries the meaning of peace) the sanctification of the connection between Mecca and Jerusalem is like a blessed tree, watered by the strivings and yearnings and self-sacrifice of Prophets, saints, soldiers, artisans, women, and people of all walks of life and nationalities who revered Jerusalem as the Holy City of God and as a symbol of human submission to the One Creator.
It was with this spirit of faith and righteous undertaking that the ancestral patriarch of the nation of the Arabs and the Israelites, the Prophet Abraham, planted the blessed tree of monotheistic faith in Jerusalem and Palestine; indeed, Abraham (peace be upon him) watered the terrain of Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Arabian Peninsula with this blessed tree of submission to the One God through his sojourns and travels in these ancient lands where the cradle of human civilization had its earliest beginnings.
This message of human submission to God was shouldered by countless hordes of humans who were awakened to the significance of God’s Covenant with humanity’s collective ancestor (Adam), and who lived in accordance with the fundamental premise of this Covenant: that only God should be worshipped, and that only His Law should be observed. This message was communicated by the Prophets and sages and men and women of learning that belong to every tribe and race in every age of human history.
This message was likewise guarded and defended against the follies of corruption and oppression by the towering Prophets of the Israelites and the Gentiles- the seal of whom was the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the unlettered orphan of Arabia to whom was revealed the Holy Qur’an- God’s final Revelation to the human race.
The Muslim conquests of the 7th century A.D. were to a great extent motivated by the strivings of a new universal nation, with a universal message of monotheistic worship and Law- to plant the seeds of faith and justice in the Holy Land. In this sense, the struggles of Abraham, David, Solomon, Jesus, and every righteous individual, to purify the Holy Land of profanity and corruption encountered great vindication when the Muslim-Arab army of liberation entered Palestine (with the consent of its Christian inhabitants) in the age of the Muslim Caliph ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab.
Jerusalem was liberated in 637 A.D. It is said that the pious Arab Caliph ‘Umar, upon entering the City of Jerusalem, insisted on entering the city on foot out of a sense of reverence for its sanctity and meaning in Islam. It is also a fact of history that he refrained from performing prayers in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre out of a fear that Muslims would forcibly convert it into a mosque and thus infringe on the spirit of tolerance and justice that the Faith and Law of Islam enjoins.
Mr. Khaled Nusseibeh is a translator and writer. He currently manages the Ubada Center for Writing and Translation Services in Amman. Born in Amman in 1961, he obtained his BA and MA from Columbia and Princeton Universities, respectively. Mr. Nusseibeh, who originates from Jerusalem, specialized in Near Eastern Studies with a focus on Islamic thought and studies.
Posted on: 1999
By Khaled Nusseibeh
There are moments in the annals of human history when nations face, sometimes willfully– at others under compulsion– the bitter burdens of conflict. Each nation, in the ebb and flow of historical movement, has had a taste of both triumph as well as defeat. 
At each moment of such conflict individuals and states have grappled with the imperatives of an ethic of conduct, or have at other times been, to grave consequence, oblivious to the importance of a moral premise for behavior in times of war.
The modern world has, in this closing century of the second millenium, been profoundly shaken by the brutalities of modern warfare, the extent of which brutality and suffering has been unmatched in the preceding millennia of human civilization. The two world wars, the camps of incarceration of the Stalinist Soviet Union, Nazi Germany– and the multiple conflicts of this century have visited on both innocent and culpable life a heavy toll of suffering and death; likewise, the unfolding conflicts in Palestine, Iraq, Lebanon, and the Balkans have entailed a saga of oppression, the unethical targeting of innocents, the expropriation of legitimately acquired wealth and substantial abuses of human rights.
When children are targets of war, when the honor of women and men is a weapon in the arsenal of foes of dimmed moral vision, when the rights of civilian populations under military occupation are violated men and women of sense must pose the question: is there a code that can prevent human descent into the code of the jungle under conditions of conflict? Or have those participating in current conflicts forgotten the lessons of previous wars, or can’t they be awakened to a code of conduct, adherence to which, may be disaster preventive for future generations?
To speak in simple terms: there are ground rules for peaceful co-existence between states which may be enhanced when basic and politically tolerable restraint is shown by politicians and military personnel of all ranks in times of conflict. In other words, ethnic cleansing, attempting to starve a portion of a civilian population as a weapon of battle, rape of women, destruction of vital food crops, violence against children, plunder of the private property of a population under occupation, and degrading treatment of prisoners of war, all contribute to writing the following chapter of human conflict and suffering.
Islam has an ethic of conflict which is both humane, reasonable, and merciful to protagonists in a conflict: Abu Bakr Al-Siddiq, the first Caliph of Islam, captured an important part of this ethic in these words which he addressed to his troops in A.D. seventh century:
“O people, be alerted to ten matters, so learn them from me; do not betray.., do not cheat, do not defile dead corpses, do not kill a small child, or an aged man, nor a woman, do not cut or burn trees of palm, do not cut a fruit bearing tree, do not slaughter a sheep or a cow or a camel except for your nourishment; and you will encounter people who are dwellers of cloisters (i.e. monks and priests) so do not harm them…” (Quoted from: Mawsu’t Al-‘Alam Al-Islami/’Umar Al-Armuti, pp.205)
All of the preceding, in my view is relevant to the issue of Jerusalem which the One God of humanity has sanctified and blessed as the land of peace, holiness, and human surrender to Heaven. Such blessing is anchored in human striving to accept the races of earth, to build monuments of equity and tolerance, to defend what is inviolable in God’s Law, to water the plant of human glorification of God Almighty through deeds which do justice to an orphan, which support a righteous struggle to prevent the bulldozing of a home, which spread knowledge that is useful to people in their livelihoods– but which also helps people in their struggles for salvation in the hereafter.
It is very often a paradox that perpetrators of injustice and its victims are sometimes driven, through the blinding influence of power, or the sense of grievance at victimization– to unethical methods and views of struggle. In a word, any struggle that is injurious to Religion, property, inviolable life, the dignity of people, the integrity of the family is reprehensible– under circumstances of both military preponderance or under conditions of occupation; Muslims and people of goodwill will continue mourning the occupation of the Holy City of Jerusalem and will hopefully, continue to reform themselves and to strive that it is restored to righteous and tolerant sovereignty.
Posted on: 2000
By Khaled Nusseibeh
Palestinian Jerusalemites do indeed have a sense of the past. Arguably, any people do. How can we begin to define the Palestinians’ sense of history? And can we speak about the existence of a collectively shared sense of the past?
In a sense, it is an objective statement to say that Palestinians are a people with historical belonging to the land of Palestine. It is, moreover, objective to observe that Palestinians share the Arabic Language and an experience of history that dates to biblical and pre-biblical times.
The mistake is sometimes made whereby Palestinian history is viewed as having a beginning in the Arab-Islamic conquest of the lands of Syria and Palestine in the 7th century. Perhaps the processes of conversion to Islam and cultural Arabisation began then- yet Palestinian history by no means started then.
Palestinians are an Arab, predominantly Muslim people with varied ethnic and cultural genealogies and who have inhabited Palestine for countless centuries (1). The various ethnic and cultural genealogies are attested to by the names of its hamlets and towns and through the archeological ruins that communicate a dazzlingly rich history of awesome and modest happenings alike.
The Palestinian, irrespective of his/her level of education, has a sense- intensified by the assaults on his/her land and identity- of belonging to a national community. But this national community accommodates other affiliations and identities such as the Jordanian national identity, the Lebanese national identity, the American national identity, etc.
This writer belongs to a segment of Palestinians who are aware of their being Arab and Palestinian, but who equally underpin this national belonging to a belonging to the community of Islam or the Ummah of Mohammed (Peace be Upon Him).
What does belonging to the Ummah of Islam mean? It means respecting, cherishing, and honoring one’s homeland and the near and distant kinship ties. However, it also means feeling a sense of brotherhood with all who profess the faith of Islam and who bear witness that there is no God but Allah, and that Muhammad is His messenger.
This sense of brotherhood/sisterhood transcends the boundaries of politics, ethnicity, geography, language, social standing, etc. Because it is a communal belonging that is based on the sense of our divine origin, the God who created mankind, the universe, the homeland, and history.
The Palestinians are a people with a land, with a history, with a faith, with a struggle, and with a future (God Willing).
Bibliography
(1) Nakhleh, Issa; Encyclopedia of The Palestinian Problem; Intercontinental Books, NY, V. 1; 1991; p. 1
Mr. Khaled Nusseibeh is a translator and writer. He currently manages the Ubada Center for Writing and Translation Services in Amman. Born in Amman in 1961, he obtained his BA and MA from Columbia and Princeton Universities, respectively. Mr. Nusseibeh, who originates from Jerusalem, specialized in Near Eastern Studies with a focus on Islamic thought and studies.
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